Objective Resolutions 1946

On 13 December, 1946, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru moved the Objectives Resolution:

1.This Constituent Assembly declares its firm and solemn resolve to proclaim India as an Independent Soverign Republic and to draw up for her future governance a Constitution;

2.WHEREIN the territories that now comprise British India, the territories that now form the Indian States, and such other parts fo India as are outside British India and the States as well as such other territories as are willing to be constituted into the Independent Soverign India, shall be a Union of them all; and

3.WHEREIN the said territories, whether with their present boundaries or with such others as may be determined by the Constituent Assembly and thereafter according to the law of the Constitution, shall possess and retain the status of autonomous Units, together with residuary powers and exercise all powers and functions of government and administration, save and except such powers and functions as are vested in or assigned to the Union, or as are inherent or implied in the Union or resulting therefrom; and

4.WHEREIN all power and authority of the Soverign Independent India, its constituent parts and organs of government, are derived from the people; and

5.WHEREIN shall be guaranteed and secured to all the people of India justice, social economic and political : equality of status, of opportunity, and before the law; freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith, worship, vocation, association and action, subject to law and public morality; and

6.WHEREIN adequate safeguards shall be provided for minorities, backward and tribal areas, and depressed and other backward classes; and

7.WHEREBY shall be maintained the integrity of the territory of the Republic and its soverign rights on land, sea, and air according to justice and the law of civilized nations; and

8.this ancient land attains its righful and honoured placed in the world and make its full and willing contribution to the promotion of world peace and the welfare of mankind.
This Resolution was unanimously adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 22 January 1947.

Late in the evening of 14 August, 1947 the Assembly met in the Constitution Hall and at the stroke of midnight, took over as the Legislative Assembly of an Independent India.

On 29 August, 1947, the Constituent Assembly set up a Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to prepare a Draft Constitution for India. While deliberating upon the draft Constitution, the Assembly moved, discussed and disposed of as many as 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635 tabled.

The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November, 1949 and the hon'ble members appended their signatures to it on 24 January, 1950. In all, 284 members actually signed the Constitution. On that day when the Constitution was being signed, it was drizzling outside and it was interpreted as a sign of a good omen.


The Constitution of India came into force on 26 January, 1950. On that day, the Assembly ceased to exist, transforming itself into the Provisional Parliament of India until a new Parliament was constituted in1952

Functions of the Brain

Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

The human brain is a specialized organ that is ultimately responsible for all thought and movement that the body produces. Many different parts of the brain and their functions are shown in the article. Each part has a unique function that allows humans observe and interact with their environment effectively.

The human brain is ultimately responsible for all thought and movement that the body produces. This allows humans to successfully interact with their environment, by communicating with others and interacting with inanimate objects near their position. If the brain is not functioning properly, the ability to move, generate accurate sensory information or speak and understand language can be damaged as well.
The brain is made up of nerve cells which interact with the rest of the body through the spinal cord and nervous system. These cells relate information back to specific centers of the brain where it can be processed and an appropriate reaction can be generated. Several chemicals are also located in the brain, which help the body maintain homeostasis, or a sense of overall comfort and calm as its basic needs are met. Keeping these chemicals balanced and the nerve cells firing properly are essential to healthy brain function.

Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain, and contains tools which are responsible for most of the brain's function. It is divided into four sections: the temporal lobe, the occipital lobe, parietal lobe and frontal lobe. The cerebrum is divided into a right and left hemisphere which are connected by axons that relay messages from one to the other. This matter is made of nerve cells which carry signals between the organ and the nerve cells which run through the body.
Frontal Lobe: The frontal lobe is one of four lobes in the cerebral hemisphere. This lobe controls a several elements including creative thought, problem solving, intellect, judgment, behavior, attention, abstract thinking, physical reactions, muscle movements, coordinated movements, smell and personality.
Parietal Lobe:Located in the cerebral hemisphere, this lobe focuses on comprehension. Visual functions, language, reading, internal stimuli, tactile sensation and sensory comprehension will be monitored here.

• Sensory Cortex- The sensory cortex, located in the front portion of the parietal lobe, receives information relayed from the spinal cord regarding the position of various body parts and how they are moving. This middle area of the brain can also be used to relay information from the sense of touch, including pain or pressure which is affecting different portions of the body.
• Motor Cortex- This helps the brain monitor and control movement throughout the body. It is located in the top, middle portion of the brain.

Temporal Lobe: The temporal lobe controls visual and auditory memories. It includes areas that help manage some speech and hearing capabilities, behavioral elements, and language. It is located in the cerebral hemisphere.

• Wernicke's Area- This portion of the temporal lobe is formed around the auditory cortex. While scientists have a limited understanding of the function of this area, it is known that it helps the body formulate or understand speech.

Occipital Lobe: The optical lobe is located in the cerebral hemisphere in the back of the head. It helps to control vision.

• Broca's Area- This area of the brain controls the facial neurons as well as the understanding of speech and language. It is located in the triangular and opercular section of the inferior frontal gyrus.

Cerebellum

This is commonly referred to as "the little brain," and is considered to be older than the cerebrum on the evolutionary scale. The cerebellum controls essential body functions such as balance, posture and coordination, allowing humans to move properly and maintain their structure.

Limbic System

The limbic system contains glands which help relay emotions. Many hormonal responses that the body generates are initiated in this area. The limbic system includes the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus and thalamus.
Amygdala:The amygdala helps the body responds to emotions, memories and fear. It is a large portion of the telencephalon, located within the temporal lobe which can be seen from the surface of the brain. This visible bulge is known as the uncus.
Hippocampus: This portion of the brain is used for learning memory, specifically converting temporary memories into permanent memories which can be stored within the brain. The hippocampus also helps people analyze and remember spatial relationships, allowing for accurate movements. This portion of the brain is located in the cerebral hemisphere.
Hypothalamus:The hypothalamus region of the brain controls mood, thirst, hunger and temperature. It also contains glands which control the hormonal processes throughout the body.
Thalamus:The Thalamus is located in the center of the brain. It helps to control the attention span, sensing pain and monitors input that moves in and out of the brain to keep track of the sensations the body is feeling.

Brain Stem

All basic life functions originate in the brain stem, including heartbeat, blood pressure and breathing. In humans, this area contains the medulla, midbrain and pons. This is commonly referred to as the simplest part of the brain, as most creatures on the evolutionary scale have some form of brain creation that resembles the brain stem. The brain stem consists of midbrain, pons and medulla.
Midbrain:The midbrain, also known as the mesencephalon is made up of the tegmentum and tectum. These parts of the brain help regulate body movement, vision and hearing. The anterior portion of the midbrain contains the cerebral peduncle which contains the axons that transfer messages from the cerebral cortex down the brain stem, which allows voluntary motor function to take place.
Pons: This portion of the metencephalon is located in the hindbrain, and links to the cerebellum to help with posture and movement. It interprets information that is used in sensory analysis or motor control. The pons also creates the level of consciousness necessary for sleep.
Medulla: The medulla or medulla oblongata is an essential portion of the brain stem which maintains vital body functions such as the heart rate and breathing.
Source Website: www.md-health.com

The brain contains more than 90 percent of the body's neurons. Physically, the brain has three more or less distinct areas: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.
The hindbrain is found in even the most primitive vertebrates. It is made up of the cerebellum, the pons, and the medulla. The medulla is a narrow structure nearest the spinal cord; it is the point at which many of the nerves from the left part of the body cross to the right side of the brain and vice versa. The medulla controls such functions as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. The pons, located just above the medulla, connects the top of the brain to the cerebellum. Chemicals produced in the pons help maintain our sleep-wake cycle. The cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres and handles certain reflexes, especially those that have to do with balance. It also coordinates the body's actions.
The midbrain lies between the hindbrain and forebrain and is crucial for hearing and sight.
The forebrain is supported by the brain stem and buds out above it, drooping somewhat to fit inside the skull. It consists of the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the cerebral cortex. The thalamus relays and translates incoming messages from the sense receptors—except those for smell. The hypothalamus governs motivation and emotion and appears to play a role in coordinating the responses of the nervous system in times of stress.

SUMMARY TABLE
PARTS OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Hindbrain	Medulla	Sensory and motor nerves crossover
	Pons	Regulation of sleep-wake cycle
	Cerebellum	Reflexes (e.g., balance) Coordinates movement
Midbrain		Hearing, vision relay point Pain registered
Forebrain	Thalamus	Major message relay center Regulates higher brain centers and peripheral nervous system
	Hypothalamus	Motivation Emotion Stress reactions
	Cerebral Hemispheres
	Occipital lobe	Receives and processes visual information
	Temporal lobe	Complex vision Smell Hearing Balance and equilibrium Emotions and motivations Some language comprehension
	Parietal lobe	Sensory projection and association areas Visual/spatial abilities
	Frontal lobe	Goal-directed behavior, concentration Emotional control and temperament Motor projection and association areas Coordinate messages from other lobes

The cerebral hemispheres, located above the thalamus and hypothalamus, take up most of the room inside the skull. The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres is known as the cerebral cortex. The cerebral hemispheres are what most people think of when they think of the brain. They are the most recently evolved portion of the brain, and they regulate the most complex behavior. Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four lobes, delineated by deep fissures on the surface of the brain. The occipital lobe of the cortex, located at the back of the head, receives and processes visual information. The temporal lobe, located roughly behind the temples, is important to the sense of smell; it also helps us perform complex visual tasks, such as recognizing faces. The parietal lobe, which sits on top of the temporal and occipital lobes, receives sensory information, in the sensory projection areas, from all over the body and figures in spatial abilities. The ability to comprehend language is concentrated in two areas in the parietal and temporal lobes. The frontal lobe is the part of the cerebral cortex responsible for voluntary movement and attention as well as goal-directed behavior. The brain starts response messages in the motor projection areas, from which they proceed to the muscles and glands. The frontal lobe may also be linked to emotional temperament.
These four lobes are both physically and functionally distinct. Each lobe contains areas for specific motor sensory function as well as association areas. The association areas—areas that are free to process all kinds of information—make up most of the cerebral cortex and enable the brain to produce behaviors requiring the coordination of many brain areas.

The four lobes of the cerebral cortex.

References: Website:www.prenhall.com

Neuron - Message Flow to Brain

 The Nervous System

1. The nervous receives information about conditions both within and around the body. It processes and integrates this information on a variety of levels, and directs the body to respond appropriately. The basic organization of the nervous system follows this flow of information:
   1. Afferent or sensory neurons collect stimuli received by receptors throughout the body, including the skin, eyes, ears, nose, tongue as well as pain and other receptors in the internal organs.
   2. Sensory information is transmitted to the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is responsible for integrating the sensory information and directing any necessary response.
   3. The CNS controls the rest of the body via efferent neurons, of which there are two subdivisions:
      1. Efferent neurons to the skeletal muscles, which are under voluntary or conscious control, comprise the somatic motor division.
      2. Efferent neurons which direct contraction and secretion in the internal organs fall within the autonomic division. The autonomic division is in turn divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
2. The neuron, or nerve cell, is the basic functional unit of the nervous system. There are many types of neurons throughout the nervous system, but they share some common features:
   1. The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles essential for the survival of the neuron. It is usually small compared to the rest of the neuron.
   2. One or more dendrites extend like tendrils from the cell body. The dendrites serve to receive incoming electrical signals from other neurons.
   3. Most neurons have a single axon to transmit outgoing signals. Axons vary in length from micrometers to over a meter. Portions of the axon are insulated by supporting cells with myelin, a phospolipid membrane.
3. Neurons carry information from one end of the cell to the other by generating and propagating electrical signals.
   1. The potential difference across the neuron cell membrane is the basis for generating electrical signals. Much like a battery, this potential is creating by the uneven distribution of ions on either side of the membrane.
   2. Two factors influence the membrane potential difference:
      1. The concentration gradient, or difference in concentration, of different types of ions across the neuron cell membrane. The two major ions that influence potential difference are sodium, which is abundant outside the cell, and potassium, which is abundant inside the the cell. Both of these ions have a charge of +1.
      2. The permeability of the membrane is differenct for different types of ions. Ions can only move across the membrane through pores or channels that only allow specific types of ions to pass through. At rest, neuron cell membranes are impermeable to sodium and only slightly permeable to potassium. Potassium tends to leak out of the neuron, leaving the inside of the membrane slightly more negative than the outside due to the loss of positive charge.
   3. The neuron generates electrical signals by sudden changes in permeability to ions, particularly sodium. The process begins with the opening of sodium channels. Because sodium is more abundant outside the membrane, and because the inside of the membrane is slightly more negative than the outside, sodium ions tend to rush into the cell through the open channels. This tends to depolarize the cell, reducing the charge difference across the membrane.
   4. The initial opening of sodium channels may be caused either chemically or mechanically (deformation of the cell membrane). This signal is propagated by sodium channels that are sensitive to the initial voltage change. These sodium channels are opened the sudden influx of positive charge through neighboring channels, causing the signal to spread from the site where it began.
   5. Once an area of the neuron cell membrane has depolarized and passed on a signal, it needs to repolarize before it can transmit another signal. This is accomplished by the opening of potassium channels in the membrane. Since potassium is much more abundant inside the cell, it tends to leak out and carry positive charge with it. This tends to restore the resting membrane potential.
4. Neurons communicate with neighboring neurons and other types of cells by secreting minute amounts of different types of small molecules, which collectively are called neurotransmitters. The space between cells where this transmission occurs is known as the synapse. A sequence of steps typically occurs at the synapse whenever a neuron communicates with another cell:
   1. Electrical signals originating in the body a neuron reach the end of the cell's axon.
   2. Depolarization of the axon terminal leads to fusion of packets of neurotransmitter with the cell membrane, releasing the molecules into the synapse.
   3. The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the membrane to reach a dendrite or cell body of the target cell.
   4. The neurotransmitter molecules bind to specific receptors on the target cell membrane, leading to the creation of an electrical signal or other action. 

Concurrent list - Indian Constitution

Concurrent List

The Concurrent List or List-III is a list of 47 items given in Part XI of the Constitution of India, concerned with relations between the Union and States. This part is divided between legislative and administrative powers. The legislative section is divided into three lists: Union List, State List and Concurrent List. Unlike the federal governments of the United States, Switzerland or Australia, residual powers remain with the Centre, as with the Canadian federal government.

Items on the list

The 47 items currently on the list are:

1    Criminal law, including all matters included in the Indian Penal Code at the com­mencement of this Constitution but excluding offences against laws with respect to any of the matters specified in List I or List II and excluding the use of naval, military or air forces or any other armed forces of the Union in aid of the civil power.

2    Criminal procedure, including all matters included in the Code of Criminal Procedure at the commencement of this Constitution.

 3   Preventive detention for reasons connected with the security of a State, the main­tenance of public order, or the maintenance of supplies and services essential to the commu­nity; persons subjected to such detention.

 4   Removal from one State to another State of prisoners, accused persons and persons subjected to preventive detention for reasons specified in Entry 3 of this list.

  5  Marriage and divorce; infants and minors; adoption; wills, intestacy and succes­sion; joint family and partition; all matters in respect of which parties in judicial proceedings were immediately before the commencement of this Constitution subject to their personal law.

6   Transfer of property other than agricultural land; registration of deeds and docu­ments.

 7   Contracts including partnership, agency, contracts of carriage, and other special forms of contracts, but not including contracts relating to agricultural land.

  8  Actionable wrongs.

9    Bankruptcy and insolvency.

10    Trust and Trustees.

11    Administrators - general and official trustees.

    11-A. Administration of justice; constitution and Organisation of all courts, except the Supreme Court and the High Courts.

    12. Evidence and oaths; recognition of laws, public acts and records, and judicial proceedings.

    13. Civil procedure, including all matters included in the Code of Civil Procedure at the commencement of this Constitution, limitation and arbitration.

    14. Contempt of court, but not including contempt of the Supreme Court.

    15. Vagrancy; nomadic and migratory tribes.

    16. Lunacy and mental deficiency, including places for the reception or treatment of lunatics and mental deficients.

    17. Prevention of cruelty to animals.

    17-A. Forests.

    17-B. Protection of wild animals and birds.

    18. Adulteration of foodstuffs and other goods.

    19. Drugs and poisons, subject to the provisions of Entry 59 of List I with respect to opium.

    20. Economic and social planning.

    20-A. Population control and family planning.

    21. Commercial and industrial monopolies, combines and trusts.

    22. Trade unions; industrial and labour disputes.

    23. Social security and social insurance; employment and unemployment.

    24. Welfare of labour including conditions of work, provident funds, employers' lia­bility, workmen's compensation, invalidity and old age pensions and maternity benefits.

    25. Education, including technical education, medical education and universities, subject to the provisions of Entries 63, 64, 65 and 66 of List I; vocational and technical training of labour.

    26. Legal, medical and other professions.

    27. Relief and rehabilitation of persons displaced from their original place of residence by reason of the setting up of the Dominions of India and Pakistan.

    28. Charities and charitable institutions, charitable and religious endowments and religious institutions.

    29. Prevention of the extension from one State to another of infectious or contagious diseases or pests affecting men, animals or plants.

    30. Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths.

    31. Ports other than those declared by or under law made by Parliament or existing law to he major ports.

    32. Shipping and navigation on inland waterways as regards mechanically propelled vessels, and the rule of the road on such waterways, and the carriage of passengers and goods on inland waterways subject to the provisions of List I with respect to national waterways.

    33. Trade and commerce in, and the production, supply and distribution of,-

            (a) the products of any industry where the control of such industry by the Union is declared by Parliament by law to be expedient in the public interest, and imported goods of the same kind as such products

            (b) foodstuffs, including edible oilseeds and oils

            (c) cattle fodder, including oilcakes and other concentrates

            (d) raw cotton, whether ginned or unginned, and cotton seed; and

            (e) raw jute.

    33-A. Weights and measures except establishment of standards.

    34. Price control.

    35. Mechanically propelled vehicles including the principles on which taxes on such vehicles are to be levied.

    36. Factories.

    37. Boilers.

    38. Electricity.

    39. Newspapers, books and printing presses.

    40. Archaeological sites and remains other than those declared by or under law made by Parliament to be of national importance.

    41. Custody, management and disposal of property (including agricultural land) declared by law to be evacuee property.

    42. Acquisition and requisitioning of property.

    43. Recovery in a State of claims in respect of taxes and other public demands, including arrears of land-revenue and sums recoverable as such arrears, arising outside that State.

    44. Stamp duties other than duties or fees collected by means of judicial stamps, but not including rates of stamp duty.

    45. Inquiries and statistics for the purposes of any of the matters specified in List II or List III.

    46. Jurisdiction and powers of all courts, except the Supreme Court, with respect to any of the matters in this List.

    47. Fees in respect of any of the matters in this List, but not including fees taken in any court. 

Different colored eyes

Eye color is due to the pigment that is present in the iris.
Brown eyes are rich in melanin deposits, and blue eyes indicate a lack of melanin.
The melanocytes of the iris rest in a richly innervated psuedosyncytium, which is necessary to maintain eye color.
Two genes control eye color: EYCL3, found on chromosome 15, which codes for brown/blue eye color (BEY), and EYCL1, found on chromosome 19, which codes for green/blue eye color (GEY).
Although previously believed to be inherited in simple Mendelian fashion, eye color has proved to be a polygenic trait.
The exact procedure as how these genes decides the color of the eyes is not exactly known.


Heterochromia iridium (two different-colored eyes within a single individual) and heterochromia iridis (a variety of color within a single iris) are relatively rare in humans and result from increased or decreased pigmentation of the iris.
Most cases are isolated and sporadic, conceivably resulting from an alteration in the expression of the above-mentioned genes (and those we have yet to find) within the cells of the entire iris or even a particular section. Other potential causes include trauma around the time of birth or later in life, congenital pigmented nevi or even medications such as those used in the treatment of glaucoma. There are a few well-known syndromes of which heterochromia iridis is a striking feature. Waardenburg syndrome type 1, an autosomal dominant disorder caused by mutations in the PAX3 gene, is characterized by pigmentary disturbances of the iris, hair and skin, as well as congenital sensorineural hearing loss. But two different eye colors tends to be an isolated finding, which adds to the seemingly endless and fascinating variation in humans' physical characteristics.

Source: http://www.scientificamerican.com

Special Class Railway apprectice (SCRA) Cutoff

Students are requested to share their marks and other important information about scra cut off here.
SCRA is conducted by the UPSC.

Protected area network in India - Wild Life

Protected Area Network in India

India is one of the 17 mega diverse countries of the world. 
With only 2.4% of the world’s land area, 16.7% of the world’s human population and 18% livestock, it

contributes about 8% of the known global biodiversity, however, putting enormous demands on our natural resources.
 India is home to world’s largest wild tigers population and has got unique assemblage of globally important endangered species like Asiatic lion, Asian Elephant, One-horned Rhinoceros, Gangetic River Dolphin, Snow Leopard, Kashmir Stag, Dugong, Gharial, Great Indian Bustard, Lion Tailed Macaque etc.

Protected Area Network in India:

A National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), chaired by the Prime Minister of India provides for policy framework for wildlife conservation in the country. The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) was adopted in 2002, emphasizing the people’s participation and their support for wildlife conservation. 

India’s conservation planning is based on the philosophy of identifying and protecting representative wild habitats across all the ecosystems. 
The Indian Constitution entails the subject of forests and wildlife in the Concurrent list. 

A network of 668 Protected Areas (PAs) has been established, extending over 1,61,221.57 sq. kms. (4.90% of total geographic area), comprising 102 National Parks, 515 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 47 Conservation Reserves and 4 Community Reserves.
. 39 Tiger Reserves and 28 Elephant Reserveshave been designated for species specific management of tiger and elephant habitats. 
UNESCO has designated 5 Protected Areas as World Heritage Sites.

There are 4 categories of the Protected Areas viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves.

Sanctuary is an area which is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance. The Sanctuary is declared for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment. Certain rights of people living inside the Sanctuary could be permitted. Further, during the settlement of claims, before finally notifying the Sanctuary, the Collector may, in consultation with the Chief Wildlife Warden, allow the continuation of any right of any

person in or over any land within the limits of the Sanctuary.

National Park is an area having adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance. The National Park is declared for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment, like that of a Sanctuary. The difference between a Sanctuary and a National Park mainly lies in the vesting of rights of people living inside. Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are allowed. No grazing of any livestock shall also be permitted inside a National Park while in a Sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control or prohibit it. 
In addition, while any removal or exploitation of wildlife or forest produce from a Sanctuary requires the recommendation of the State Board for Wildlife, removal etc., from a National Park requires recommendation of the National Board for Wildlife (However, as per orders of Hon’ble Supreme Court dated 9th May 2002 in Writ Petition (Civil) No. 337 of 1995, such removal/ exploitation from a

Sanctuary also requires recommendation of the Standing Committee of National Board

for Wildlife).

Conservation Reserves can be declared by the State Governments in any area owned by the Government, particularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries and those areas which link one Protected Area with another. Such declaration should be made after having consultations with the local communities.

Conservation Reserves are declared for the purpose of protecting landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna and their habitat. The rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve are not affected.

Community Reserves can be declared by the State Government in any private or community land, not comprised within a National Park, Sanctuary or a Conservation Reserve, where an individual or a community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat. Community Reserves are declared for the purpose of protecting fauna, flora and traditional or cultural conservation values and practices. As in the case of a Conservation Reserve, the rights of people living inside a Community Reserve are not affected.

Regulations/ laws relating to Protected Areas (PAs):

The PAs are constituted and governed under the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, Indian Forest Act, 1927, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. 
The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau of the Central Government supplements the efforts of provincial governments in wildlife crime control through enforcement of CITES and control of wildlife crimes having cross-border, interstate and international ramifications. 
In order to strengthen and synergise global wildlife conservation efforts, India is a party to major international conventions viz. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, UNESCO-World Heritage Committee and Convention on Migratory Species (CMS).

Main issues concerning the management of Protected Areas: Wildlife conservation and management in India is currently facing a myriad of complex challenges that are both ecological and social in nature. Issues such as habitat loss/fragmentation, overuse of biomass resources in the context of biotic pressures, increasing human-wildlife conflicts, livelihood dependence on forests and wildlife resources, poaching and illegal trade in wildlife parts and products, need for maintaining

a broad base of public support for wildlife conservation exemplify and characterize the contemporary wildlife conservation scenario in India. The government and the civil society are taking several measures to address these issues. Improved synergies and better coordination amongst the wide array of stakeholders are needed to meet the challenges of conserving India’s diverse wilderness resources.

Wetlands

Wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment and the associated plant and animal life. They occur where the water table is at or near the surface of the land, or where the land is covered by water.

 The Ramsar Convention takes a broad approach in determining the wetlands which come under its aegis. Under the text of the Convention (Article 1.1), wetlands are defined as:

 “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres”.

In addition, for the purpose of protecting coherent sites, the Article 2.1 provides that wetlands to be included in the Ramsar List of internationally important wetlands:
“may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands”.
 Five major wetland types are generally recognized:

• marine (coastal wetlands including coastal lagoons, rocky shores, and coral reefs);
• estuarine (including deltas, tidal marshes, and mangrove swamps);
• lacustrine (wetlands associated with lakes);
• riverine (wetlands along rivers and streams); and
• palustrine (meaning “marshy” - marshes, swamps and bogs).

In addition, there are human-made wetlands such as fish and shrimp ponds, farm ponds, irrigated agricultural land, salt pans, reservoirs, gravel pits, sewage farms and canals. The Ramsar Convention has adopted a Ramsar Classification of Wetland Type which includes 42 types, grouped into three categories: Marine and Coastal Wetlands, Inland Wetlands, and Human-made Wetlands.

 Wetlands occur everywhere, from the tundra to the tropics. How much of the earth’s surface is presently composed of wetlands is not known exactly. The UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre has suggested an estimate of about 570 million hectares (5.7 million km2) – roughly 6% of the Earth’s land surface – of which 2% are lakes, 30% bogs, 26% fens, 20% swamps, and 15% floodplains. Mitsch and Gosselink, in their standard textbook Wetlands, 3d ed. (2000), suggest 4 to 6% of the Earth’s land surface. Mangroves cover some 240,000 km2 of coastal area, and an estimated 600,000 km2 of coral reefs remain worldwide. Nevertheless, a global review of wetland resources prepared for Ramsar COP7 in 1999, while affirming that “it is not possible to provide an acceptable figure of the areal extent of wetlands at a global scale”, indicated a ‘best’ minimum global estimate at between 748 and 778 million hectares. The same report indicated that this “minimum” could be increased to a total of between 999 and 4,462 million hectares when other sources of information were taken into account.

 Why conserve wetlands?

 Wetlands are among the world’s most productive environments. They are cradles of biological diversity, providing the water and primary productivity upon which countless species of plants and animals depend for survival. They support high concentrations of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrate species. Wetlands are also important storehouses of plant genetic material. Rice, for example, which is a common wetland plant, is the staple diet of more than half of humanity.

The multiple roles of wetland ecosystems and their value to humanity have been increasingly understood and documented in recent years. This has led to large expenditures to restore lost or degraded hydrological and biological functions of wetlands. But it’s not enough – the race is on to improve practices on a significant global scale as the world’s leaders try to cope with the accelerating water crisis and the effects of climate change. And this at a time when the world’s population is likely to increase by 70 million every year for the next 20 years.
Global freshwater consumption rose sixfold between 1900 and 1995 – more than double the rate of population growth. One third of the world’s population today lives in countries already experiencing moderate to high water stress. By 2025, two out of every three people on Earth may well face life in water stressed conditions.
The ability of wetlands to adapt to changing conditions, and to accelerating rates of change, will be crucial to human communities and wildlife everywhere as the full impact of climate change on our ecosystem lifelines is felt. Small wonder that there is a worldwide focus on wetlands and their services to us.

 In addition, wetlands are important, and sometimes essential, for the health, welfare and safety of people who live in or near them. They are amongst the world’s most productive environments and provide a wide array of benefits.

Wetland values

Wetlands provide tremendous economic benefits, for example: water supply (quantity and quality); fisheries (over two thirds of the world’s fish harvest is linked to the health of coastal and inland wetland areas); agriculture, through the maintenance of water tables and nutrient retention in floodplains; timber production; energy resources, such as peat and plant matter; wildlife resources; transport; and recreation and tourism opportunities.
In addition, wetlands have special attributes as part of the cultural heritage of humanity: they are related to religious and cosmological beliefs, constitute a source of aesthetic inspiration, provide wildlife sanctuaries, and form the basis of important local traditions.

These functions, values and attributes can only be maintained if the ecological processes of wetlands are allowed to continue functioning. Unfortunately, and in spite of important progress made in recent decades, wetlands continue to be among the world’s most threatened ecosystems, owing mainly to ongoing drainage, conversion, pollution, and over-exploitation of their resources.

Endangered Mammals in India

Endangered Mammals of India

• Asiatic Golden Cat (Felis temmincki)
• Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica)
• Asiatic Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) thought to be Extinct now in India
• Indian Wild Ass or Khur (Equus hemionus khur)
• Asiatic Wild Dog/ Dhole (Cuon alpinus)
• Asiatic Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus)
• Banteng (Bos javanicus)
• Bengal Fox (Vulpes bengalensis)
• Brow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldi eldi)
• Brown Bear (Ursus arctos)
• Jerdon's Palm Civet (Paradoxurus jerdoni)
• Clawless Otter (Amblonyx cinereus)
• Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)
• Common Otter (Lutralutra)
• wild Cat (Felis lybica ornata)
• Dugong/ Seacow (Dugong dugon)
• Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica)
• Gaur (Bos gaurus)
• Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei)
• Goral (Nemorhaedus goral)
• Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
• Grey Wolf/ Indian Wolf (Canis lupus)
• Himalayan W-toothed Shrew (Crocidura attenuate)^{[citation needed]}
• Himalayan Marten (Martes flavigula)
• Himalayan Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogaster)
• Sikkim large-clawed Shrew (Soriculus nigrescens)
• Hispid Hare (Caprolagus hispidus)
• Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock)
• Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus)
• Indian Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur)
• Jackal (Canis aureus)
• Kashmir Stag/ Hangul (Cervus affinis hanglu)
• Leopard (Panthera pardus)
• Lesser Panda (Ailurus fulgens)
• Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus)
• Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina)
• Marbled Cat (Felis marmorata)
• Markhor (Capra falconeri)
• Nayan (Ovis ammon hodgsoni)
• Nilgiri Langur (Presbytis johni)
• Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsi)
• Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius)
• Phayre's Langur (Trachypithecus phayrei)^{[citation needed]}
• Pygmy Hog (Sus salvanius)
• Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes montana)
• Rusty-spotted Cat (Prionailurus rubiginosa)
• Serow (Nemorhaedus sumatraensis)
• Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus )
• Smooth Indian Otter (Lutrogale perspicillata)
• Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia)
• Stump-tailed Macaque (Macaca arctoides)
• Swamp Deer/ Barasingha (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli)
• Takin (Budorcas taxicolor)
• Tibetan Wild Ass (Equus hemionus kiang)
• Tiger (Panthera tigris)

EARTHWORM

Earthworms
Earthworms Help The Environment     Earthworms are more than just fish bait. They are the main contributors to enriching and improving soil for plants, animals and even humans. Earthworms create tunnels in the soil by burrowing, which aerates the soil to allow air, water and nutrients to reach deep within the soil. Earthworms eat the soil which has organic matter such as decaying vegetation or leaves. Plants cannot use this organic matter directly.  After organic matter is digested, the earthworm releases waste from their bodies called castings. Castings contain many nutrients that the plant can use. Some people even use earthworm castings as garden fertilizer.
Earthworm Anatomy 1. Segmented Body Earthworms are classified in the phylum Annelida or Annelids. Annelida in Latin means, “little rings.” The body of the earthworm is segmented which looks like many little rings joined or fused together. The earthworm is made of about 100-150 segments. The segmented body parts provide important structural functions. Segmentation can help the earthworm move. Each segment or section has muscles and bristles called setae. The bristles or setae help anchor and control the worm when moving through soil. The bristles hold a section of the worm firmly into the ground while the other part of the body protrudes forward. The earthworm uses segments to either contract or relax independently to cause the body to lengthen in one area or contract in other areas. Segmentation helps the worm to be flexible and strong in its movement. If each segment moved together without being independent, the earthworm would be stationary.
2. Digestive System The digestive system is partitioned into many regions, each with a certain function. The digestive system consists of the pharynx, the esophagus, the crop, the intestine and the gizzard. Food such as soil enters the earthworm’s mouth where it is swallowed by the pharynx. Then the soil passes through the esophagus, which has calciferous glands that release calcium carbonate to rid the earthworm’s body of excess calcium. After it passes through the esophagus, the food moves into the crop where it is stored and then eventually moves into the gizzard. The gizzard uses stones that the earthworm eats to grind the food completely. The food moves into the intestines as gland cells in the intestine release fluids to aid in the digestive process. The intestinal wall contains blood vessels where the digested food is absorbed and transported to the rest of the body.
3. Circulatory System Another important organ system is the circulatory system. The earthworm has a closed circulatory system. An earthworm circulates blood exclusively through vessels. There are three main vessels that supply the blood to organs within the earthworm. These vessels are the aortic arches, dorsal blood vessels, and ventral blood vessels. The aortic arches function like a human heart. There are five pairs of aortic arches, which have the responsibility of pumping blood into the dorsal and ventral blood vessels. The dorsal blood vessels are responsible for carrying blood to the front of the earthworm’s body. The ventral blood vessels are responsible for carrying blood to the back of the earthworm’s body.
4. Respiratory System Earthworms do not have lungs. They breathe through their skin. Oxygen and carbon dioxide pass through the earthworm’s skin by diffusion. For diffusion to occur, the earthworm’s skin must be kept moist. Body fluid and mucous is released to keep its skin moist. Earthworms therefore, need to be in damp or moist soil. This is one reason why they usually surface at night when it is possibly cooler and the “evaporating potential of the air is low.” (www.amonline.net.au/factsheets/earthworms.htm) Earthworms have developed the ability to detect light even though they cannot see. They have tissue located at the earthworm’s head that is sensitive to light. These tissues enable an earthworm to detect light and not surface during the daytime where they could be affected by the sun.
Earthworm Reproduction Earthworms are hermaphrodites where each earthworm contains both male and female sex organs. The male and female sex organs can produce sperm and egg respectively in each earthworm. Although earthworms are hermaphrodites, most need a mate to reproduce. During mating, two worms line up inverted from each other so sperm can be exchanged. The earthworms each have two male openings and two sperm receptacles, which take in the sperm from another mate. The earthworms have a pair of ovaries that produce eggs. The clitellum will form a slime tube around it, which will fill with an albuminous fluid. The earthworm will move forward out of the slime tube. As the earthworm passes through the slime tube, the tube will pass over the female pore picking up eggs. The tube will continue to move down the earthworm and pass over the male pore called the spermatheca which has the stored sperm called the spermatozoa. The eggs will fertilize and the slime tube will close off as the worm moves completely out of the tube. The slime tube will form an “egg cocoon” and be put into the soil. The fertilized eggs will develop and become young worms.

Why do Earthworms surface after Rain
Earthworms laying on sidewalks or streets after a heavy spring rain has become commonplace, but why do they do this ... and could they be a travel hazard?
Researchers hypothesize several reasons why heavy rain storms bring crawlers out of their soil homes.
For years scientists seemed to think the only reason earthworms came to the soil surface after a good rain was to prevent drowning in their water-filled burrows.
"This is not true as earthworms breathe through their skins and actually require moisture in the soil to do so," said Dr. Chris Lowe, Lecturer in Waste and Environmental Management, University of Central Lancashire in Preston, United Kingdom.
Earthworms are unable to drown like a human would, and they can even survive several days fully submerged in water.
Soil experts now think earthworms surface during rain storms for migration purposes.
"It gives them an opportunity to move greater distances across the soil surface than they could do through soil," said Dr. Lowe. "They cannot do this when it is dry because of their moisture requirements."
Certain species of earthworms surface to mate, but only a few of the 4,400 existing species, making it unlikely that mating is a primary reason for widespread surfacing.
Another explanation involves rain drop vibrations on the soil surface sounding similar to predator vibrations, like that of moles. Earthworms often come to the surface to escape moles.
"Rain can set up vibrations on top of the soil like mole vibrations," said Professor Josef Gorres of the University of Vermont's Department of Plant and Soil Science. "Similar to how earthworms move upwards and out of the way when predator vibrations are felt, they could move in a similar way for rain vibrations."
Similarly, humans create vibrations when "fiddling" for bait earthworms.
To coax worms from their burrows, fishermen run a piece of steel or a hand saw across the top of a stake, which causes a rubbing sound to occur as the stake vibrates.
Earthworms are then moved to the surface, much to the fisherman's delight.
A Travel Hazard?
Although there are no reports of travel disruptions or injuries due to earthworms creating slick road conditions, some researchers haven't ruled out the possibility.
"I have not heard of earthworms causing slick conditions on sidewalks, but I can believe it might happen as they exude a mucous through their skin that may cause slippery conditions," said Dr. Lowe.
Can Drought Affect Worms?
It is essential that worms live in a moist environment, but during drought conditions, life is certainly more difficult for a worm.
"Earthworms dig deeper into the soil where it is moister when conditions are dry," said Mary Ann Bruns, Associate Professor of Agronomy/Soil Microbiology in the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences at Penn State. "They will do all they can to avoid extreme temperature fluctuations."

Earthworms are held up at the Mount Nelson Hotel's earthworm farm in Cape Town, South Africa in March of 2008. The earthworms are fed on kitchen waste from the hotel, which the worms process into fertilizer in their garden. (AP Photo/Schalk van Zuydam)
Earthworm Swarming
New research published in the journal Ethology revealed that earthworms form herds, swarming together to make "group decisions," as reported by BBC.
Earthworms use touch to communicate and interact, according to scientists who performed experiments on earthworm swarms outside of soil.
Research confirmed that social cues among earthworms influence behavior.

Exactly why earthworms have come to form herds is still being investigated, but it is possible that worms swarm to protect themselves. Protection from weather elements hasn't been ruled out.

Difference between osmosis and reverse osmosis

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion in which the molecules are water and the concentration gradient occurs across a semipermeable membrane. The semipermeable membrane allows the passage of water, but not ions (e.g., Na+, Ca2+, Cl-) or larger molecules (e.g., glucose, urea, bacteria).
Diffusion and osmosis are thermodynamically favorable and will continue until equilibrium is reached.
Osmosis can be slowed, stopped, or even reversed if sufficient pressure is applied to the membrane from the 'concentrated' side of the membrane.

Reverse osmosis occurs when the water is moved across the membrane against the concentration gradient, from lower concentration to higher concentration.
To illustrate, imagine a semipermeable membrane with fresh water on one side and a concentrated aqueous solution on the other side. If normal osmosis takes place, the fresh water will cross the membrane to dilute the concentrated solution. In reverse osmosis, pressure is exerted on the side with the concentrated solution to force the water molecules across the membrane to the fresh water side.

Reverse osmosis is often used in commercial and residential water filtration. It is also one of the methods used to desalinate seawater. Sometimes reverse osmosis is used to purify liquids in which water is an undesirable impurity (e.g., ethanol).